A Note From Cari
By Cari Olmsted

Community assessments are a challenging part of the Head Start and Early Head Start planning process. We hope that this newsletter helps you enhance what you are already doing.

In keeping with the theme, as part of this newsletter, we are conducting our own assessment. Please take time to fill out and return the Newsletter Reader Survey you will find in this edition and return it to our 3rd Party evaluators, Withycombe, Scotten & Associates. Your responses will guide our work in the next 15 months. Thank you in advance for taking a few minutes to answer this survey.

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Tapping the Potential of the Community Assessment Process
By Chuck Smith

COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT AS A PRODUCT AND PROCESS
The community assessment can be considered a product and a process. The product is clearly outlined in the Performance Standards section 1305.3, with its description of the types of data to be collected and comparisons to be made. The process, often implied, is closely tied to the community partnerships' process, and to the long-term objectives behind such partnerships. Seen in this way, the community assessment not only guides the program in determining what Head Start service models to offer, but sheds light on what roles the agency may play in creating a community that is responsive to the needs of young children and families. By design and through history, Head Start has the capacity to be a child development program, as well as a family development program and an agent for community change.

BASIC GOALS OF COMMUNITY ASSESSMENTS
A broader awareness of the basic goals of the community assessment is helpful in understanding the potential benefits that the community assessment can offer to the Head Start program:

• establish a baseline of information on the current status of the community;
• prepare an inventory of the community's available resources;
• create a deeper understanding of how existing services do, and do not, meet the needs of children and families; provide a comprehensive picture by linking pieces of information;
• enhance an understanding of cultural groups in the community, and
• forge a consensus about the community's needs. This potential for developing consensus in the community is what moves an assessment from a product of statistics and measures to a vibrant process that can stimulate the wide range of community partnerships that are beneficial to the families and children served by Head Start. (see Charles Bruner, et al)

PREPARATION FOR THE PROCESS
Below are 15 questions that can significantly help in both conceptualizing your own community assessment process, and organizing the implementation. Although the Performance Standards' requirements provide general answers to most of the questions, it cannot answer the question of what the program can be to the community.

• What do we want/need to know?
• Why do we want to know it?
• How will the information be used once it is obtained?
• Where can we find the data necessary to answer our questions?
• How can we obtain these data?
• What useful sources already exist at the local, state, and federal levels?
• How can we most advantageously compile, analyze, and present the data?
• Should any other agencies in the community be involved in the program? Why or why not? How?
• What will the needs assessment cost?
• How long will it take to complete?
• Where can we find the financial and personnel resources necessary to conduct the needs assessment?
• Which of the available needs assessment approaches/methods will be most efficient for our purposes?
• What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of each of these approaches?
• How much assistance will be necessary from special consultants?
• What techniques and processes are available whereby the findings can be translated into programs designed to meet human needs? (See Helms and Issacs)

BASIC INFORMATION COMPONENTS OF A COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT
The 3 basic types of data that are collected in the community assessment process, and some examples, are: § demographic and outcome data e.g., economic, public health, education, child welfare, juvenile justice, child report cards (Kids Count, etc.); § service data e.g., inventory, accessibility, service coordination, community-based organizations, neighborhood resource mapping (see McKnight & Kretzmann); and § resource data e.g., information on governance and financing systems that control community resources, identification of new and potential funding for the community.

CURRENT USE VERSUS VISION
How would the program like to use the community assessment process and product relative to how it is currently being used? It is crucial to keep in mind that, although the adjustments you make in the actual community assessment process may seem relatively minor, they involve change. Sometimes the changes convey a shift in the overall mission or purpose of the organization. In this way, the community assessment is directly tied to the strategic plan and mission of the program. It would be ill-advised to make changes in the administration, or use of a community assessment, without closely attending to the messages about the program mission that are being conveyed to staff and others in the community. The community assessment can be a powerful process even when there is no intention to do more than the basic requirements of the funder.

BASIC EXPECTATIONS OF THE HEAD START COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT
Briefly, the expected outcomes of community assessment include: a statistical profile; a problem statement based on the profile analysis; a prioritization of problems to be addressed; and information to aid in making decisions on program philosophy, long- and short-range objectives, service designs, program options, recruitment area, and facility locations priority for recruitment and selection. However, in collecting the necessary information to fulfill the outcomes of the community assessment, Head Start programs often have sufficient information to do more with the assessment than is required.

DESIGNS FOR COMMUNITY ASSESSMENTS
Below are a number of methods available to gather information and assess aspects of a community and its services (Helms and Isaacs; see also Kretzmann and McKnight; Mead; and Hawkins and Catalano). Demographic Analysis or Social Indicators Approach. This approach uses descriptive statistics from existing public records and reports to draw inferences about needs. Utilization Analysis Method or Rates-Under Treatment Approach. This approach looks at whether the delivered services achieved the desired outcomes with those who actually received the services. However, it is not really an assessment of unmet needs. The Small Area Analysis Approach. This approach focuses on variations in service use and outcomes within a larger geographic area or population. Effective analysis of the variations would require more planning. The Key Informant Approach. This approach relies on the knowledge of community people who are involved in the areas that are the focus of the assessment. Consensus-Reaching Approach. This approach involves convening key informants and concerned citizens, getting their perspectives on the subject at hand (i.e. child care quality and availability), and creating consensus about the current status and need. The Community Forum Approach. This approach seeks to obtain wide participation from residents regarding their impressions about the issues, needs, and strengths of the community. There is lots of room for flexibility in designing and focusing the forum events. Community Survey or Population Survey Approach. This approach focusing on getting systematic individual feedback from people regarding their views, needs, and service utilization. Risk and Protective Factors Approaches. Popularized by the "Communities That Care" model, these approaches focus on identifying research-based, measurable, and valid indicators of risks and protective factors to prevent specific community health concerns. The assessment process focuses on identifying potential for alleviating risk factors and enhancing the presence of protective factors within the community and the service delivery network. The idea is to promote resiliency among people while working to reduce risks to successful and productive living. These approaches identify the types of desired outcomes early in the process, and allow the data collection and assessment methods to be done in relation to the desired "vision" for the community. Community Assets Mobilization. This approach by Kretzmann and McKnight is a method of community development in which community assessment is one part of the process. This approach places a high value on community strength and capacity development as a way of building community cohesion, addressing current needs and goals, and preventing potential community problems.

IMPLICATIONS
The language change in the Revised Performance Standards to "community assessment," and the greater emphasis on family partnerships, family support, and community involvement of parents, may warrant broadening or shifting the focus of community assessments to assessing and mobilizing the strengths and capacities of Head Start eligible families and the community at large. Kretzmann and McKnight fully describe a model for doing this in their book, Building Communities from the Inside Out: A Path Toward Finding and Mobilizing Community Assets. Greater consumer input may be necessary in a) identifying resources and needs, and b) assessing actual accessibility of identified relevant community resources. Two rounds of input from program participants may be needed to accomplish these tasks. Community partnership expectations and emphasis on collaborations increase the need to assess other dimensions in the area of "Service Data," specifically service coordination, community-based organizations, and neighborhood resource mapping (formal and informal). "Resource Data" assessments may be more warranted given the charge to connect with businesses. as they may be more effective in helping advocate for the unmet needs of Head Start eligible families. Overall, more intentional use of the "process" of community assessment as a community partnership strategy may be a worthwhile investment for programs.

REFERENCES
Bruner, C., Bell, K., Brindis, C., Chang, H., & Scarbrough, W. (1993). Charting a Course: Assessing a Community's Strengths and Needs. Washington, DC: National Center for Service
Integration. Helms, D., & Issacs, M. (1991, January). Review of Needs Assessment Approaches. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research.
Hawkins, D., & Catalano, J. (1992). Communities That Care: Action for Drug Abuse Prevention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kretzmann, J. P., & McKnight, J. L. (1993). Building Communities from The Inside Out: A Path Toward Finding and Mobilizing A Community's Assets. Evanston IL: Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research.
McKnight, J., & Kretzmann, J. (1990). Mapping Community Capacity. Evanston IL: Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research.
Mead, S., & Associates. (1993). A Family Wellness Needs Assessment for Alaska Head Start. Anchorage AK: Prevention Associates.

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COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT THAT FOCUSES ON DISABILITY ISSUES
By Ginger Fink, Leslie Keller, & Connie Lucas-Branson

PREVALENCE
An important piece of planning when thinking about disabilities services in your program is to get a picture of the prevalence of young children with developmental disabilities. This information should be available to you from community partners such as the lead agency in your state for Part B or Part C services which will have information about the number of children eligible and/or enrolled in early intervention and special education. Other sources of information may come from agencies serving children with special health care needs which would have access to information and data about children with disabilities, handicapping conditions, chronic illnesses and health related educational or behavioral problems. Your state's Medicaid database may contain information such as prenatal care, pregnancy outcomes, maternal and paternal demographics, birth certificates linking medical diagnoses, and maternal and infant care. Together these sources will help you with an accurate portrait of the population of children who are eligible and/or receiving early intervention and special education services in your community. For a bigger picture, or for purposes of comparing, you can review the National Health Interview Survey, which is conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics.

Data from the above mentioned sources important to Early Head Start and Head Start programs in planning for services to children with disabilities include:

• National prevalence
• State prevalence
• Distribution by family income
• Distribution of children by age
• Distribution of children by mother's race/ethnicity
• Enrollment in early intervention or special education by county or school district
• Risk factors, both biological and environmental

FAMILIES
How do you focus on getting information about families of children with disabilities? You could start by interviewing parents of children with disabilities, not just parents served by your Head Start/Early Head Start program. Then continue by surveying, or asking questions of, agencies in your community likely to have information specific to families of children with disabilities. For example, churches, respite providers, support and advocacy groups, public health organizations, early childhood special education agencies, and early intervention programs. Here are some sample questions for focus groups, community forums, and interviews as suggested by the U.S. Department of Education (1996):

Questions to Ask Families

• What services do families want?
• Why do families want or need these services?
• How have the services met their needs so far? Why or why not?
• What attracts families to the services offered in the community?
• How do families learn about the services in their community?
• What are the barriers that keep families from getting the services they want?
• Have families describe the most positive and negative encounters they have experienced.
• What would families suggest to agencies to help them work more effectively together?

• What opportunities and services does your agency consider the most important?
• What attracts families to your agency?
• How do families know about your services?
• What are the barriers for families trying to access your services?
• How do you evaluate the quality of your services?
• If you could change one aspect of your services or program, what would that be?
• What helps agencies work more effectively with families?
• Can you describe your successes and challenges in working with other agencies that provide services to families of children with disabilities?
• Can you describe the activities, policies, and procedures that work well for the agency?
• What opportunities exist to develop resources for children and families? What new opportunities should be explored?
• What conditions in the community benefit families? What conditions make it more difficult for families to find solutions to their problems?

SERVICES AVAILABLE
Once your organization has learned about parents' needs and wants, and who in your community can supply you with current useful data, a third area of investigation is service delivery availability. The business of community assessment is not only to learn what does not exist, but what does. Services for children with disabilities will be provided by some of the more obvious agencies or organizations, most of whom you know about and use. However, in many communities other services may be available by way of groups or organizations that may not be part of a state's system of services, but part of a private or faith-based group.

The following groups or organizations may provide services for children with disabilities:

• § Hospitals often house speech and other therapy and referral services.
• § Senior citizens' groups or homes may supply volunteers for reading.
• § Private rehabilitation organizations may support your services to children or adults.
• § Civic clubs such as the Lions, Kiwanis, or Elks may provide hearing aids, glasses or grants.
• § Immigrant services organizations or councils may provide interpreters.
• § Faith-based organizations may also provide interpreters and other resources.
• § Attorneys may provide free legal service.

Among services to parents are the parent information and support organizations, which exist in each state. These groups provide a wealth of information about community resources. In addition, these organizations support parents with networks, information, support-groups, training and other assistance. The information is readily available at the web site for the National Information Clearinghouse for Children and Youth with Disabilities at www.NICHCY.org. Go to "State Resources" and click on your state.

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COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT: HEAD START AND UNITED WAY
By Matthew Porter

This article will offer information about the community assessment requirement that both Head Start and United Way require. I obtained the United Way data from an interview with the United Way of King County, Seattle (UWKC), documents, and through their website. One fundamental difference is that UWKC conducts a community assessment every two years versus an annual assessment required by Head Start. This configuration mirrors funding patterns as well.

In order to determine funding priorities UWKC considers a wide range of statistics that include demographics, childcare availability and affordability, crime, violence, employment, child/youth, seniors, disabilities, housing, income/poverty, education, physical health, behavioral health, emergency assistance and long-term assistance. In the King County catchments area they fund 161 agencies that provide direct services in the service areas listed above. From this data four community councils advise UWKC. Each council provides a detailed profile of their region using both quantitative and qualitative measures. Whatever the measure or source of information, specific community issues and expected outcomes emerge. Community councils, working as local volunteers, interview providers and community members to get a ground level view of community needs and challenges. Funding recommendations are based upon all sources of data. UWKC gathers data from each community council looking for common patterns and trends. In the final analysis, overall social priorities are identified and funding is directed at the greatest needs. In the current funding cycle, homelessness and children are the priorities.

Here are the Children Priority Issues for UWKC:

• Improving the access to comprehensive, family support programs which include information & skill building classes that address parenting and early childhood development issues, and that help to develop positive family relationships.
• Creating more home visiting programs & therapeutic day treatment care for high-risk children and families, in order to prevent abuse or intervene when abuse is present.
• Ensuring that social support services, e.g., housing assistance, food assistance, and access to health care, transportation, and childcare assistance, are available for families with children who are trying to transition from welfare to work, and at the same time, to manage a household.

In the area of comprehensive children's services, UWKC and Head Start share philosophical and programmatic common ground. When the end result is the same, then the gathering of pertinent data should be quite similar. Head Start gathers statistical information from a wide range of sources, including United Way. Demographic information is gathered from governmental sources at all levels. WIC, public school districts, welfare departments, community partners, and other contacts provide up-to-date information that may indicate possible changes in their service delivery priorities.

Another commonality is in the area of community outcomes. Both Head Start and United Way look for changes in a wide range of individual, organizational and societal behaviors. These include values, culture, attitudes and perceptions, policies, services, economic and social conditions. Both stress community partnerships that provide efficiency, effectiveness, quantity and quality of services. Economic limitations require volunteer, as well as monetary, help to United Way from the business community. Head Start's counterbalance of in-kind contributions from community partners and volunteer parent/community boards, stretch Federal dollars and ultimately allow each grantee to become more self-sufficient. Values such as self-advocacy, community based decision-making, community-volunteer empowerment, innovative use of available resources, and independence are critical for both Head Start and United Way. Community focus group meetings should validate collected statistical data and community sensitive issues will ultimately emerge. Head Start policy councils, and United Way volunteer reviewers within their respective organizations reach consensus and develop action plans that meet the needs of the community where services are offered.

Sharing of community assessments between Head Start and local United Ways could create a new community partnership and may coordinate services that extend funding to provide quality services to more people. In conclusion, community assessments judge the impact of what has been done and what is needed now, and guides future plans and actions. United Way and Head Start are inexorably tied together by common ideals and community needs. I strongly suggest that you should contact your local United Way and ask for their community assessment data. You could also forward to them your agency's community assessment.

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Community Assessment: A New Resource
By Lou Landry, Friends of Children & Families-Head Start, Boise

Producing a thoughtful, comprehensive community assessment is a challenge to every Head Start and Early Head Start program. Through the years each program has cultivated a variety of data sources for completing this arduous task. Some of the familiar sources include free and reduced school lunch data, elementary school enrollment data, multi-income housing unit location data, and census data for local enumeration areas.

From our experience in forming a neighborhood association, we have learned about a new resource that Head Start and Early Head Start programs might consider. The City of Boise strongly supports neighborhood associations. The City employs a staff liaison to the local associations and has established a process for citizens to officially join together and develop a city-sanctioned charter as an official neighborhood organization. Each year the Mayor sets aside over $200,000 for grants to neighborhood associations.

Knowing that these resources could help our neighborhood where our largest Head Start center and our administrative office is located, we helped establish an official neighborhood association. (Our association is named the Central Bench Neighborhood Association.) We received a $7,000 grant for neighborhood planning. Through that grant, we have developed a whole new set of resources to help us understand one small area of our catchment area in greater depth. We are about 80% complete with the plan and we have learned a lot about resources we never thought of using for our community assessment. We have a much better understanding of some of the long-term economic forces which are shaping our neighborhood, and which will impact many other neighborhoods we are serving. Most of all, we have developed new collaboration partners for long-term planning. We believe that our involvement in a neighborhood association has had many benefits beyond our community assessment. We have had reason to meet many more of our neighbors than we would have otherwise. By joining together to work for neighborhood improvements, we have enhanced Head Start's presence and image in the community, and we have gained lots of new volunteers for Head Start. This has been a classic win/win situation.

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Sticky Figures: Using a Needs Assessment Produced
By the ARCH National Resource Center for Crisis Nurseries and Respite Care Services

INTRODUCTION
Child and family programs exist to render services which will alleviate problems or satisfy needs. However, these problems are not always obvious, or, even if they are clear to some people, other people may disagree. In such cases a needs assessment, which is essentially fact-finding exercise, can be helpful.

A needs assessment can be conducted either by focusing on a particular program, such as a community's need for a crisis nursery, or, by examining a population of interest, e.g., adolescents in Jefferson County, or women who are pregnant. If the assessment is surveying a certain area, specific groups can be targeted. For example, if a respite care program proposes to serve families who have children with developmental disabilities, then one would want to query only families with children with developmental disabilities.

There are several steps to consider when developing a plan to conduct an assessment. These steps include:

• Selecting the method for gathering information
• Selecting the sources of information
• Assigning responsibilities for activities of the needs assessment
• Conducting the information gathering
• Analyzing and reporting the information

In general, when conducting any type of needs assessment, be systematic, clear about the information which is sought, specific about the purpose(s) of the assessment, and careful about defining the target audience.

INFORMATION GATHERING METHODS
There are many methods for obtaining information concerning community needs. Some methods use pre-existing information about the general community and/or segments of the population which are likely to access crisis nursery or respite care services. Other methods involve written or verbal responses to requests for information. The selection of a particular method (or methods) depends on the nature of the questions being asked, the availability of respondents or existing information, the resources available to conduct the assessment, and the experience and skills of the people who will gather the information.

Social Indicators. This approach is based on descriptive statistics in public records and reports such as the census or welfare reports. The underlying assumption is that useful estimates of need are indicated by such statistics or that the statistics may be correlated with persons in need of services. For example, if temporary child care is being promoted for a population of women with substance abuse problems who have children, there might be information from the county or state which has already estimated or counted women in treatment who have children. If the target population is families with children who have severe developmental disabilities, there may be existing community statistics on the number of children who have severe developmental disabilities and their ages.

Another approach starts with previous research, or the assumption that the existence of certain defined groups of people, or conditions of society, results in greater or lesser needs for services. For example, it has been assumed that as unemployment increases, family violence increases and thus there might be an increase in the need for crisis nurseries. Problems may occur with this approach due to the inadequacy and incompleteness of the assumptions used to relate various social indicators to the direct need for crisis nurseries or respite care services. The direct application of established statistics to estimate the size of a specific population may prove more useful to a local program than using social indicators as an estimate of service need.

Key Informant. The Key Informant technique is a relatively simple and inexpensive survey technique. It involves interaction with selected community leaders and agency representatives to estimate the needs for temporary child care and the possible acceptance of such services by the community and potential consumers. The process of discussion and interaction can also establish and strengthen lines of communication with people and agencies who might be important in the future provision of crisis nursery or respite care services. The major limitation to the Key Informant approach is that it has a built-in bias toward the individual or organizational perspectives of those surveyed. These perspectives, even collectively, may not be representative of the community or constitute an accurate appraisal of the amount or types of needs which exist. Key informants may not be aware of people who are not visible to them. And, since it is usually professionals describing and making judgments about potential consumers, it does not give a direct voice to the consumers.

Be systematic when using the Key Informant method. Select the key informants carefully as representatives of the community who are likely to be knowledgeable about the services, including consumers. Determine the questions to be asked. Try to ask each informant the same questions as you develop the questions. Consider what you will do with the answers, why you are asking the questions, and how you will interpret the results. Information can be gathered in person or, if brief, on the telephone. If you are going to ask an extensive set of questions, it might be desirable to contact the informants ahead of time. Give them an idea of the commitment they are being asked to make (time, types of questions, etc.), and schedule an appointment to conduct the actual survey.

Community Forums. The Community Forum approach, similar to an open town meeting, is a gathering of members of a designated community. It is a technique for gaining citizen involvement in the program, ascertaining their reactions, and using their responses as a source of further problem identification. This approach can be adapted to identify a wide variety of needs and problems. Because the forum is a large meeting, it precludes a certain amount of depth in the investigation of the questions and expressed needs. Not everyone will necessarily be able to speak. Controlled sampling in a community forum is virtually impossible and would be contrary to the purposes of the forum. The output depends very sensitively on the persons who participate.

There are three precautions which could strengthen a Community Forum: be sure that the meeting participants represent a cross-section of the community or specific population being assessed in terms of age, race, ethnicity, income, and education; take care in designing the meeting and the process in which it is embedded; entrust the meeting to a skilled, experienced facilitator.

The process of running the meeting should include ground rules which are agreed upon by those present. Ground rules may include: establishing a maximum speaking time; giving speaking preference to people who have not yet spoken; and, getting permission from the participants to give reminders about the purpose of the forum and the questions/issues which are central to the discussion.

Surveys of the Community. A survey or questionnaire represents a way of gathering information from a large number of people. It needs to be done with thought and purpose. Particular attention should be paid to the questions being asked, the target audience from which the information is wanted, and the way in which the results from the survey will be used.

Begin by specifying the scope of the survey. Identify issues the survey will address, the purpose of the survey, and what is hoped to be accomplished through it.

Next list specific objectives. The questions being investigated should be listed in clear and unambiguous terms. For example "What percentage of the community is aware of the existence of our agency?"; "Of those people who have used our service once, what proportion would use it again if necessary?" Use short questions which can be answered with checklists, multiple choice, yes-no responses or, if really needed, open-ended answers.

It is important to consider to whom the results will be applied. If the questions concern consumer opinions, attitudes and beliefs, it would be a mistake to survey the community at large, when only a few might be consumers. When the target audience is known, it is desirable to review the format and content of the survey with the specific group in mind. Make sure the questions are relevant to the group and written at an appropriate reading level.

Finally, the issue of how the information will be used is important. With the specific survey in hand, consider how it will be summarized and the results analyzed. Determine how the questions will be scored and the way in which the scoring will be summarized. If open- ended questions are asked or comments solicited, how will the answers be handled? Is there a coding scheme which will allow sense to be made of the many different answers which will be given to open-ended questions? Nominal Group Method.

The Nominal Group Method is a structured workshop minimizing face-to-face interaction among the participants in order to obtain the view of a wider range of participants. The workshop is a structured group setting composed of a small group of people with shared views regarding community needs, barriers to services, or needed programs. The result is a broad listing of needs, barriers, or desired programs, and a group rank-ordering of priority. The nominal group approach consists of a group responding to a series of pre-defined questions. Possible questions might be: "Is there a need in the community for a crisis nursery program?", "How many people would use a crisis nursery program if one were offered?", or "Where might a crisis nursery program be located to be most useful?" Each question is presented to the group separately.

Steps for using the modified nominal group method are:

• Individual problem-issue descriptions: The leader for the meeting presents questions formulated by the program for group exploration. The questions might be listed on a flip chart or blackboard and kept in front of the group during the discussion. Without discussion, the individual members of the group are asked to think about each question and formulate responses to them.
• Group round-robin: Following the individual specifications of problems and issues, the leader goes around the group and asks each group member to present one idea in round-robin fashion. As ideas are recorded, the leaders ask if other members of the group listed the same item. If so, a check is placed beside the item as recorded. The leader does not try to coalesce or combine problem statements in any other way. No comments are permitted during this part of the meeting from other participants. The round robin continues until there are no additional suggestions (participants can pass if they have no more suggestions).
• Group discussion: Following the completed round robin activity, the group is invited to clarify and elaborate on the issues presented. The leader condenses the suggestions and merges those which appear to be similar with permission from the persons who made the suggestions. There should not be criticism or defense of any item; but participants may ask each other to clarify what they had intended to say.
• Selection and ranking: Group members are next asked to vote on the five or so nominated items which they feel are most important. Group members should be given some time in which to think about their choices.
• Group tally: The leader tallies the votes of the group members. The final period is a general discussion of the ranking of those issues that achieved the highest priority by vote and adjustment if the group is not comfortable with the results.

The process is repeated for each major question prepared for the meeting.

SELECTING THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION
In general, the people from whom information is gathered should be selected from the population to whom the results will be applied. If questions are asked about the community as a whole, then the informants should come from the community. If questions are being asked about probable consumers, then the informants should come from the group who meet the criteria for the services.

Some of the common groups from whom information is sought are the people receiving services, the community at large, targeted subsets of the community at large who meet the criteria for service, and other service providers in the community. Care should be taken to solicit representatives from larger groups (i.e., community) in a way which does not bias the results. The best way of doing this is to "randomly" sample from the larger group. This means that each person in the larger group has an equal chance of being selected as a source of information.

It is often difficult to be truly random, but care should be taken not to introduce purposeful bias. An example would be selecting families who have used the services and have come back repeatedly, eliminating those who had used the service once and never again. It reasonably could be assumed that those who repeatedly used the service were satisfied with it.

For surveys and questionnaires which are distributed "randomly" the returns are probably not "random." It is likely that those with complaints, or those who have been particularly happy with the experience will be motivated to reply. Follow-up prompting to increase the rate of returns is desirable. Even so, there is no perfect solution to overcome problems of selection in the sample of respondents.

ASSIGNING RESPONSIBILITIES FOR ACTIVITIES
One obvious step in conducting a needs assessment is to determine roles and responsibilities for the people conducting the assessment. The best approach might be to develop assignments, discuss and agree on the necessary products, and discuss and agree on the time lines and due dates for those products. The nature and style of the organization determines if the assessment is conducted as a series of individual tasks which come together as the needs assessment, or if the process is developed as a group activity from beginning to end.

CONDUCTING THE INFORMATION GATHERING PROCESS
Another consideration in the needs assessment process is the actual collecting of the information. There are some ways of doing this which are more desirable than others. If possible, a pilot of the selected information gathering approach should be tried.

During the pilot, it can be determined if the information which is needed will, in fact, be collected, and whether the approach is consistent with the population from which the information is to be gathered. During the early stage of information gathering, checks should be made on the process being used, the quality of the information received, and the products being developed. Such things as whether the surveys and questionnaires are being returned completed and whether the comments which are being recorded in community forums relate to the issues under consideration should be checked. If the results are not satisfactory then adjustments should be made in the process of the needs assessment.

ANALYZING AND REPORTING THE INFORMATION
The form in which the information is presented is important in the development of an effective needs assessment. The method of data presentation affects the degree to which findings are understood as well as received. See ARCH Factsheet No. 15 for specific information about analyzing and reporting information.

CONCLUSION
A needs assessment can be a useful tool to determine if a program is needed, if a program should be changed or expanded, and may also indicate whether or not the community and other agencies would support a program. It is most useful if it is done systematically, with a clear understanding of what the issues are and a clear understanding of who the sources of information should be.

About the Author: David B. Langmeyer, Ph.D., is an Evaluation Consultant to ARCH. He was Chief of Evaluation and Research in the NC Division of MH/DD/SA Services for thirteen years. ARCH Factsheet Number 27, Sept., 1993

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CHECK OUT THESE HELPFUL WEBSITES!

Who? Collection Development Training (CDT) for Arizona Public Libraries-Community Needs Assessment.
What? An outline of a full-scale needs assessment. Helps you decide how best to go about it and what you can expect to gain from doing one. By following the steps outlined here, you can help organize your study and reduce both time and costs.
How to Get There: Visit the main CDT homepage at http://www.dlapr.lib.az.us/cdt/intro.htm From the sidebar menu, select "Community Needs Assessment."

Who? The U.S. Department of Education.
What? Implementing Schoolwide Programs-An Idea Book on Planning-October 1998. This book details effective methods and useful resources for planning schoolwide programs and for measuring their success in a cycle of continuous improvement. Section III explores in depth the steps involved in planning schoolwide program change: (1) establishing a planning team, (2) conducting a comprehensive needs assessment, (3) clarifying needs and identifying research-based strategies, (4) setting schoolwide program goals, (5) writing the plan, and (6) finalizing the plan.
How to Get There: Visit the US Dept of Ed Publications & Products Web site at: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/index.html Select Educational Research & Practice (Reports and Studies). Then select, "Title I & Idea Book Series." Scroll down to, "Implementing Schoolwide Programs-An Idea Book on Planning" and click on the title. In the Table of Contents select, "Step 2-Conducting a Comprehensive Needs Assessment." Or, go directly to the table of contents at http://www.ed.gov/pubs/Idea_Planning/

Who? The U.S. Department of Education.
What? A Guide to Promising Practices in Educational Partnerships-April, 1996. Over the last several years, educational partnerships have proliferated across the country. Some have become vehicles for fundamental education reform. Others have delivered services to students and faculty to improve education or student outcomes, whether or not schools are attempting systemic changes. A Guide to Promising Practices in Educational Partnerships (April 1996) includes examples of, among other things, educational and community needs assessments.
How to Get There: Visit the US Dept of Ed Publications & Products Web site at: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/index.html Select Educational Research & Practice (Reports and Studies). Then select, "Partnerships." Scroll down to, "A Guide to Promising Practices in Educational Partnerships" and click on the title. In the Table of Contents select "Section I: Conducting Needs Assessments." Or, go directly to the table of contents at http://www.ed.gov/pubs/PromPract/ 444

Who? Oregon State University Family Policy Program & Oregon Child Care Research Partnership-Results Accountability Guidebook: Child Care Resource and Referral.
What? Today more than ever before, the public, legislators, program participants, advocates, and others demand "accountability for results." People want to know not only what resources a program invests and what it does but also the program's results. This external demand for results accountability has grown over the past decade to include most public, private, and non-profit services. In addition to meeting this external demand, accountability for results has a tremendously positive impact on programs and other initiatives. Focusing on results provides the vision needed to effectively plan, implement, and improve services. When results are emphasized, participants are motivated to continue and staff burnout is likely to be reduced, especially when the issues are complex and demand long-term work. Finally, clear results support effective contract negotiations and more powerful communication with the public, legislators, and funding agencies. This guidebook builds on the work of researchers, state child care agencies and local CCR&R agencies around the nation to reflect the emergent thinking about CCR&R accountability.
How to Get There: Visit the Oregon Child Care Research Partnership homepage at http://www.lbcc.cc.or.us/familyresources/researchpartner/ From the menu, select "Results Accountability Guidebook: Child Care Resource and Referral.

Who? The Laboratory for Community and Economic Development (LCED)
What? This article answers the following questions-Why conduct a needs assessment survey? Who should be involved? What are the steps in conducting a needs assessment study? How can communities get help?
How to Get There: Visit the LCED home page at http://www.ag.uiuc.edu/~lced/main.html From the sidebar menu select, "Resources". Select, "Factsheets" and then select, "Community Needs Assessment: Taking the Pulse of Your Community." Or, go directly to the article at http://www.ag.uiuc.edu/~lced/resources/factsheets/needpuls.html

Who? Trident United Way
What? Communitywide & Children's Needs Assessments. The Community Needs Assessment of Children study was commissioned by Trident United Way's Success by 6 Initiative to help identify the most critical needs facing children in the Trident region and to raise awareness about the status and conditions of young children and their families. It is a tool that can be used for analysis of these needs for those working toward changes that will improve the lives of all children in our region. The report can also be used as a foundation to build consensus, set priorities and develop action plans to begin investing in our children and the future of our community.
How to Get There: Visit the Trident United Way web site at http://www.tuw.org/ Select, "Communitywide & Children's Needs Assessments." Then click on, "Needs Assessment of Children." Or, go directly to the assessment at http://www.tuw.org/Assess.html

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MORE HELPFUL RESOURCES!

Cari's Pick
What? Know Your Community-A Step by Step Guide to Community Needs and Resources Assessment. By Bryan Samuels, Niloffer Ahsan, and Jill Garcia. More Details… This easy-to-use, spiral-bound manual is packed with examples, sample surveys, data-collection worksheets, progress charts, and step-by-step explanations on how to get the information you need about your community. Also includes a companion diskette with many of the charts, surveys, and other tools found in the book.
More Details… This book presents a simple, inexpensive method for discovering untapped local resources that can be shared among community members. It shows how to design and operate a capacity-listing-and-referral service utilizing volunteers, donated space, and a minimal budget. This model can be modified and expanded for larger groups with greater resources. (Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, 1988) How to Order: Exclusive distributor: ACTA Publications, 4848 North Clark Street, Chicago, IL 60640. Phone: 1-800-397-2282 or 773-271-1030.
How to Order: Contact the Family Resource Coalition of America at (312)338-0900. Or E-mail: frca@frca.org Visit their web site at www.frca.org

What? A Guide to Creating a Neighborhood Information Exchange: Building Communities by Connecting Local Skills and Knowledge. By John P. Kretzmann, John L. McKnight, and Deborah Puntenney.

What? Charting a Course: Assessing a Community's Strengths and Needs. By Charles Bruner, Karen Bell, Claire Brindis, Hedy Chang, and William Scarbrough.
More Details… This resource brief is based on a review of existing guides to conducting community assessments; state, county, and neighborhood reports on child and family well-being; surveys and focus group reports examining the views of children; and selected assessments produced by communities that have been effective in shaping community initiatives. Throughout, illustrations from specific community assessments show the different ways assessment results can be used to help shape community actions.
How to Order: Available from: The National Center for Service Integration c/o Mathtec, Inc., 5111 Leesburg Pike, Ste. 702, Falls Church, VA 22041, (703) 824-7447.